村上 凪

A similar idea already appears in Confucian classics: According to historical sources, the concept of the “Hua–Yi distinction” can be found in the pre-Qin Spring and Autumn Annals and its traditional interpretations: “If a feudal lord uses the rites of the Yi, he is considered Yi; if the Yi adopt the rituals of China, they are considered Chinese.” This means that a ruler or group is classified not by ethnicity alone, but by cultural and ritual practice: if a lord follows the customs of the “Yi” (non-Chinese peoples), they are regarded as Yi; if non-Chinese peoples adopt the rites of the Huaxia (Chinese civilization), they can be considered part of the Chinese cultural sphere.

The “China” refers to Chinese civilization, not a particular ethnicity. China is not a mono-ethnic nation. The Manchus themselves did not have detailed legal codes, so in the early period of the Qing dynasty, the government established the “Great Qing Legal Code” (Da Qing Lüli), whose foundational blueprint was actually the “Great Ming Code” (Da Ming Lü) from the Ming dynasty. Da Qing Huidian, Volume 1: “The Great Qing Legal Code inherits the old laws of the Great Ming, and adjusts them according to practical matters, broadening the scope of regulations.” This means that the Qing legal code, while inheriting Ming law, made appropriate adjustments based on the actual needs of the Qing dynasty. Da Qing Huidian – Civil Service Examinations, Volume 3: “Following the Ming system of imperial examinations, divided into local, provincial, and palace levels, so that scholars may enter official service.” This emphasizes that the examination system followed the Ming model, allowing scholars to take office through the imperial exams. Da Qing Huidian – Household Registration, Volume 2: “Following the Ming household registration system, dividing population by households, collecting taxes and labor, so that civil administration can function.” This means that the Qing maintained the Ming system of household registration, population division, and taxation to ensure feasible administration. The Qing dynasty continued to use the institutional names and functions of the Ming, including the Cabinet, Six Ministries, Censorate, Court of Imperial Sacrifices, Ministry of Rites, Ministry of War, etc. While Manchu officials were incorporated, the overall structure followed the Ming system of three provinces, six ministries, and civil-military official hierarchy. In the early Qing, the position of “Neige Chengzhi” (Grand Secretary) was established, similar to the Ming civil official system, but with additional Manchu posts. Da Qing Huidian – Official Positions, Volume 1: “Following the Ming system of six ministries, with added Manchu official positions, so that governmental affairs can be continued.” Da Qing Huidian – Local Administration, Volume 1: “Following the Ming provinces, prefectures, and counties, establishing governors, provincial treasurers, and surveillance commissioners, so that administrative systems can be observed.” The Qing dynasty continued to use the four-tier system of provinces, prefectures, subprefectures, and counties, retaining positions such as governor, provincial treasurer, and surveillance commissioner. The reason was to ensure stable local governance, particularly in the early period, taking into account the customs of Han Chinese populations and local taxation. Qing Shilu – Shunzhi Year 1 records: “Following the Ming system, continuing the old administration, to pacify the people and care for the scholars.” The Qing rulers emphasized “inheriting Ming systems” to gain support from the Han population and to legitimize their rule through ritual and legal continuity. The Da Qing Lüli was first drafted in the fifth month of the third year of Shunzhi (1646), based on the Da Ming Lü, with additional modifications. It underwent revisions during the reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong before being finalized. Subsequently, the Da Qing Lüli was enforced throughout the Qing territories until the Qing imperial edict of abdication transferred Chinese sovereignty to the Provisional Government of the Republic of China.