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The Jihad That Killed 20 Million: The Forgotten Genocide in China Strategic Research Report: The Muslim Jihad in China (1862–1877) The Bottom Line: 📉 74.5% Population Decline in Gansu. 💀 20+ Million Dead. ⚔️ An explicit attempt to establish an Islamic State. By: Ofer Binshtok 1. Executive Summary: A Religious War of Conquest The events in Northwest China during the 19th century cannot be defined as a "civil conflict" or an "ethnic squabble." Historical evidence points to an initiated military and ideological campaign (Jihad) by Muslim forces, aimed at expropriating sovereignty from China, cleansing the territory of the "infidel" population (Han Chinese), and establishing an Islamic political entity. The Chinese population, facing an existential threat of extermination, was forced to respond with a total defensive war to remove the threat. - 1.1 Methodology & Sources Statement This report adheres to strict academic and professional standards. The foundation of information and analysis relies exclusively on primary sources, recognized scholarly literature, and peer-reviewed articles. To ensure the integrity, accuracy, and depth of the analysis, this report relies exclusively on primary sources and peer-reviewed historical records, explicitly rejecting the use of open-source or collaborative encyclopedias (such as Wikipedia), which often present superficial or biased information. All claims and conclusions presented below are based solely on cross-referenced data from authoritative sources (see Section 7). - 1.2 Critical Methodological Note: The "Root Cause" Fallacy This report unequivocally rejects the historiographical approach attempting to explain or contain the mass slaughter committed by the Muslims through sociological "deep factors" such as administrative corruption or taxes. The attempt to link bureaucratic frustration to the systematic extermination of millions of civilians and gendercide suffers from the "Fallacy of Proportionality." Civil grievances are not a "root cause" for genocide; they are, at most, a "pretext" for the eruption of an extreme religious ideology awaiting an opportunity. - 1.3 The "Infantilization of History" Fallacy: Refuting the "Spontaneous Eruption" Theory The attempt (common in popular sources) to attribute a 15-year war, which led to the establishment of a sovereign state (Kashgaria), to a local incident involving bamboo prices or tax burdens, suffers from absurd reductionism. Economic and local disputes lead to bread riots. They do not lead to the organized maneuvers actually observed: -- State Organization: The establishment of an alternative governing hierarchy, a Sharia judicial system, and a standing army. -- Global Diplomacy: Proactive engagement with the Ottoman Empire to receive recognition and weaponry. -- Ethnic Cleansing: Religious extermination unrelated to tax collection.The Research Conclusion: The "bamboo" and taxes were at most the match; the powder keg was a structured Jihadist ideology. The claim that the rebellion was "spontaneous" collapses in the face of the organized state that was established. 1.4 The Theological and Psychological Infrastructure: The Religious Motive and Dehumanization To understand the cruelty and systematic nature of the slaughter of the Chinese (labeled as "Kuffar" or "Infidels"), one must recognize the religious imperatives and the psychological mechanism of stripping the victim of their humanity ("Dehumanization") that underpinned the rebels' ideology: - Conditioning Hearts for Murder -- (Dehumanization): The mental ability to slaughter neighbors, women, and children relied on defining them as inferior to beasts. -- "The Worst of Creatures": According to the Quran (98:6): "Indeed, they who disbelieved... - those will be in the fire of Hell, abiding eternally therein. Those are the worst of creatures (Shar al-bariyah)." -- Denial of Humanity: Another verse states: "Indeed, the worst of living creatures in the sight of Allah are those who have disbelieved" (8:55). Defining the Chinese as "animals" (Dawab) removed the moral barrier to murder and turned extermination into an act of "purification." -- The Duty to Fight Neighbors: Implementation of the verse "O you who have believed, fight those adjacent to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness" (Quran 9:123). Muslims slaughtered their closest Chinese neighbors as a realization of the command to cleanse their immediate environment. -- Total Purification: Implementation of the "Verse of the Sword" – "Kill the Mushrikun wherever you find them" (Quran 9:5). The Buddhist/Confucian Chinese were perceived as "polytheists" (Mushrikun) deserving of death. -- The Ultimate Goal - Religious Domination: According to Sahih al-Bukhari (Hadith 25): "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah." -- Nullification of Loyalty to China (The Ummah Doctrine): The verse "Indeed this, your religion, is one religion, and I am your Lord" (Quran 21:92) served as the basis for severing loyalty to the Chinese Emperor and transferring it to the Ottoman Caliph. - 2. The Attack Phase: Jihad and the Cleansing of the Chinese Population (1862–1864) The rebellion erupted as a violent and well-coordinated action. Contrary to the narrative of "self-defense," Muslim forces (composed of Hui, Dungan, and Uyghurs) exploited the weakness of the central government to execute a "territorial cleansing." Characteristics of the Massacre of the Civilian Population: - Annihilation of Communities: Muslim militias raided the Wei River Valley in Shaanxi Province. Reports describe the total erasure of villages and cities. The Chinese population, unarmed and not expecting an attack from their neighbors, was systematically slaughtered. In certain cities, not a single Chinese person remained alive. - Gendercide: One of the cruelest tactics was the deliberate focus on murdering Chinese men and boys. The strategic goal was twofold: eliminating the enemy's military potential (Potential Combatants) and severing Chinese family lineages (Patrilineal lines), ensuring no future generation. - Women as "War Booty": Many Chinese women were kidnapped. Their fate was to become slaves or concubines for Muslim fighters, often while being forced to convert to Islam. This is a pattern of action known from traditional religious wars (laws of Ma Malakat Aymanukum), where the wives of "infidels" are considered legitimate property. - Scale of Initial Killing: Estimates suggest that in the first two years alone, even before the arrival of the large Chinese army, millions of Chinese were murdered. Entire regions that once teemed with life became desolate. - 3. The Political Model: Establishing the "Islamic State" (Kashgaria) The definitive proof that this was a political-religious war is the establishment of an independent political entity in Xinjiang by the warlord Yaqub Beg. Yaqub Beg, who originally came from outside China (Kokand), saw himself as an emissary of Islam. Characteristics of the Established State: - Connection to the Islamic Nation (The Ummah): Yaqub Beg did not establish a "rebellious Chinese kingdom," but an Islamic Emirate. He pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan (considered the Caliph), and in return received the title "Commander of the Faithful" in the region. He minted coins bearing the Sultan's name and received arms shipments (rifles and cannons) and military advisors from him. Thus, he turned Western China into part of the global Islamic Empire. - International Recognition: Britain and Russia recognized this state de facto and maintained trade and diplomatic relations with it, assuming Chinese rule in the region had ended forever. - Strict Sharia Regime: The regime enforced Sharia laws with extreme rigor. Sharia courts were established, replacing the civil judicial system. A "Morality Police" (Muhtasib) was established, patrolling streets and beating people for offenses such as missing prayer, immodest dress, or drinking alcohol. - Erasure of Identity: Systematic destruction of Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian temples was carried out. Surviving Chinese men were forced to grow beards and wear turbans, and women were required to cover themselves completely. - 4. The Chinese Response: Existential Defensive War (1866–1877) The Qing Dynasty understood that relinquishing Northwest China was not an option. It was not merely a loss of territory, but an acquiescence to the existence of a hostile entity committing genocide against the Chinese. General Zuo Zongtang was appointed to lead the campaign. Chinese Strategy – "Offensive Defense": - "Slow but Sure": Unlike previous hasty attempts, Zuo built a massive logistical array. He instructed his soldiers to cultivate agricultural fields while advancing to ensure food supply ("Tuntian"), avoiding dependence on long supply lines. - Finance and Technology: Zuo understood that the religious zeal of the Muslims was strong, so he broke it with technology. He raised massive loans from Western banks (such as HSBC) and purchased advanced artillery and machine guns from the German company Krupp and from the United States. - Siege and Decision: The tactic involved encircling Muslim strongholds (such as in Jinjibao and Suzhou), heavy artillery bombardment, and denial of supplies until total surrender or death by starvation. - "Counter-Cleansing" Policy (Xi-xi): After recapturing territories, the Chinese adopted a "Zero Tolerance" approach. Based on a concept of "Never Again," mass executions of Muslim fighters and their supporters were carried out. The Muslim population in Shaanxi Province, the epicenter of the revolt, was reduced from about 2 million to a few isolated tens of thousands (some killed, some exiled). - 5. The Demographic Balance: Data and Facts Due to the chaos and destruction of records, historians are cautious and present ranges, but the data points to one of the greatest tragedies in human history. Numerical Analysis: Consensus Range: Academic literature estimates the population loss at between 20 and 30 million people. Conservative Estimate: Studies analyzing provincial records (as cited by Chu and Ho) point to a substantiated number of approximately 21 million dead and missing. Significance: This number includes the Chinese victims of the initial Jihad, the Muslim victims of the Chinese response, and millions who died from famine and plagues caused by the war. for comparison, this number exceeds the total death toll of World War I. Regional Breakdown: - Gansu: -- Population Collapse: From ~19.5 Million (1861) to ~5.3 Million (1880). -- Total Decline: 74.5% -- Note: This region served as the main epicenter of the destruction. - Shaanxi: -- Population Collapse: From ~13.9 Million (1861) to ~7.7 Million (1880). -- Total Decline: 44.6% -- Note: The conflict here resulted in almost total mutual cleansing. - Xinjiang: -- Population Collapse: Exact baseline unknown, but resulted in a sharp decline. -- Note: Depopulation driven primarily by Yaqub Beg's wars and the subsequent reconquest. - 6. Strategic Conclusion The events in Northwest China in the 19th century constitute a historical case study that is unambiguous: The Attacking Side (The Muslims): Driven by Jihadist ideology (backed by specific Quranic verses, Hadiths, and dehumanization mechanisms) aspiring to territorial conquest, ethnic cleansing of the original inhabitants (the Chinese), and the establishment of an Islamic State. They perceived the territory not as part of China, but as an integral part of the global Islamic Ummah, acting in cooperation with the Ottoman Caliphate. The Defending Side (The Chinese): Faced a tangible threat of extermination. Despite the mass slaughter suffered at the beginning of the war, the Chinese succeeded in mobilizing the necessary resources and launching a heroic defensive war. The Chinese victory, achieved at a terrible cost in blood, ensured territorial sovereignty and prevented Western China from becoming an extreme bridgehead of Political Islam in East Asia. - 7. Academic References The report relies on leading sources in the study of the period, verifying the "Jihad" and Islamic State narrative: 1. Kim, Hodong (2004). Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877. (The central source defining the event as Jihad and the establishment of the Islamic State). 2. Chu, Wen-Djang (1966). The Moslem Rebellion in Northwest China, 1862–1878. (Provides original Chinese documents regarding the massacre of the Han people). 3. Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. (Documents the connection between Yaqub Beg and the Ottoman Empire). 4. Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. (Deals with the demographic consequences and the Chinese trauma). 5. Islamic Sources: Quran (9:5, 9:123, 21:92, 98:6, 8:55) and Sahih al-Bukhari (Hadith 25).